article · Scientific African
Connecting high levels of solar and wind power to microgrids can cause unstable electrical frequencies due to low system inertia. This research examines an integrated control framework combining a fractional tilted-derivative tilted-integral controller, diesel generation, and vehicle-to-grid support from electric vehicles. The controller parameters are optimised offline using a wave search algorithm to minimise frequency errors. Tested across simulation models in MATLAB and Simulink, the coordinated system handles sudden load shifts, renewable fluctuations, and communication delays. Compared to standard proportional-integral-derivative controllers, this approach reduces maximum frequency deviations by up to 81 per cent and settles frequencies significantly faster. While participation from electric vehicles improves transient stability, the framework maintains frequency control via the diesel path even if vehicle owners opt out, confirming that vehicle-to-grid acts as a valuable supplement rather than an absolute requirement.
Microgrids relying heavily on solar and wind energy are vulnerable to sudden power imbalances that threaten electrical stability. By coordinating electric vehicle batteries and diesel generators through an optimised controller, microgrid operators can mitigate frequency disruptions. This strategy ensures the local grid remains stable despite shifting renewable availability or vehicle disconnections, protecting sensitive equipment and maintaining continuous supply.
This framework could assist microgrid operators, renewable energy developers, and fleet management software providers in designing coordinated frequency management schemes. As the evaluation was conducted entirely within MATLAB and Simulink simulation environments covering parameter uncertainties and communication delays, the technology is at an applied research stage and requires hardware-in-the-loop validation or real-world microgrid testing before commercial deployment.
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High penetration of photovoltaic and wind generation exposes low-inertia microgrids to frequency excursions, while vehicle-to-grid (V2G) support is constrained by owner participation, converter limits, and communication quality. This study evaluates an integrated framework combining a fractional tilted-derivative–tilted-integral (TD–TI) controller, offline wave search algorithm (WSA) tuning, diesel-generator regulation, and bounded active-power support from aggregated plug-in electric vehicles. WSA minimizes the integral of time-weighted absolute frequency error (ITAE), and the optimized parameters remain fixed throughout the robustness tests. MATLAB/Simulink studies cover step-load, multi-step and random load changes, renewable intermittency, voluntary PEV participation, V2G command delay and interruption, and ±20%/±40% parameter uncertainty. Under the step-load test, the complete TD–TI + WSA + V2G configuration achieves a maximum frequency deviation of 0.130 Hz, a settling time of 10.4 s, and ITAE of 0.410, representing reductions of 62.9%, 62.2%, and 59.0%, respectively, relative to PID. Under multi-step and random loading, the corresponding reductions reach 81.0%, 72.7%, and 65.0%. Renewable intermittency is regulated with a 0.005 Hz peak deviation, 4.8 s settling time, and ITAE of 0.290. Complete PEV opt-out retains regulation through the independent TD–TI/diesel path, whereas V2G participation improves the transient response. Severe communication impairment progressively degrades performance, while the tested one-at-a-time parameter perturbations remain bounded. Thus, the contribution lies in the coordinated integration and validation framework—not a new TD–TI topology, and V2G serves as a fast supplementary resource rather than a prerequisite for closed-loop regulation.
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DOI: 10.1016/j.sciaf.2026.e03622
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