Tubular microreactor-based Fe(II)-driven advanced oxidation: comparative assessment of percarbonate and persulfate systems for toxic dye removal

Abstract

Abstract This study presents an intensified degradation strategy for azo dyes using a flow microreactor (6 m-length/1 mm-diameter)-integrated sulfate and hydroxyl radicals advanced oxidation processes (SO 4 •− / • OH-AOPs) platform. Three systems were assessed: thermally activated persulfate (KPS), Fe(II)/KPS, and Fe(II)/sodium percarbonate (SPC), focusing on key parameters – bath temperature (20–70 °C), inlet dye concentration (5–20 µM), Fe(II) dosage (50–100 µM), pH (3–7), and oxidant flowrate (20–120 μL/s). Experiments were conducted with Basic Fuchsin (BF), a persistent dye of mutagenic and carcinogenic properties. Thermal KPS led to full dye conversion at 70 °C but negligible TOC removal at lower temperatures. Fe(II)/KPS and Fe(II)/SPC improved degradation across all temperatures. Fe(II)/KPS led to substantial mineralization (63 % TOC removal), while Fe(II)/SPC achieved only 33 %, and KPS alone 54 %. At 20 °C, Fe(II)/SPC showed slightly higher TOC removal than Fe(II)/KPS (18 % vs. 15 %). Performance was strongly influenced by Fe(II) speciation (pH-dependent) and radical scavenging by intermediates. Removal ratio analyses (Fe(II)/KPS to KPS: up to 5.0; Fe(II)/SPC to Fe(II)/KPS: up to 1.97) highlighted strong catalytic synergy, especially at low pH and low dye concentration. These findings demonstrate the potential of the microreactor-based SO 4 •− / • OH-AOPs platform for scalable, energy-efficient, and high-throughput water treatment applications.