article · Scientific Reports
, and CuO using water as the base fluid. The LSI is installed in the forward direction to the fluid inlet inside a tube with a diameter (D) of 14.3 mm and a length (L) of 2219 mm.The optimization analysis is based on both boosting the heat transfer amount and the degradation of the friction factor through five performance indices. The results revealed that CuO nanofluid performs better than other tested fluids. A maximum overall performance factor of 2.61 is reached at optimum values of the design parameters Re, ϕ, θ, and P as: 500, 0.82%, 35°, and 105.37 mm, respectively. This work is useful for the optimum design of heat exchanger devices.
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DOI: 10.1038/s41598-026-39448-w
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