Testosterone, cortisol, and bullying perpetration in adolescents: The moderating role of peer victimization

Abstract

Abstract Research on the joint role of testosterone and cortisol in aggression has produced inconsistent results, with limited attention to adolescence, a stage characterized by considerable hormonal changes, and to the distinction between within-and between-person effects. This study examined whether peer victimization moderates testosterone–cortisol associations with bullying perpetration in adolescents. Assessed at three 3-month intervals, participants (471 adolescents, Mage = 14.97, SD = 0.70; 47.1% female) reported bullying perpetration and victimization and provided saliva samples for the analysis of hormones. Random-intercept cross-lagged panel models revealed a three-way interaction (testosterone × cortisol × victimization). Increases in testosterone predicted changes in bullying perpetration when cortisol decreased. These effects were moderated by victimization. When victimization was below average, testosterone increases predicted more bullying perpetration; when it was above average, testosterone increases predicted less perpetration. These findings highlight that peer victimization shapes how testosterone–cortisol interactions influence adolescent aggression, underscoring the interplay of biological and contextual factors in adolescent adaptation.