review · ADMET & DMPK
Electrochemical sensors and biosensors offer versatile applications across pharmaceuticals, cancer detection, drug monitoring, and testing toxic substances in drinking water. These devices present key operational advantages, including low manufacturing costs, compact size, rapid processing speeds, and the capability to detect multiple target substances at the same time. In drug analysis, they can help evaluate reaction mechanisms, providing insights into how pharmaceuticals behave in the body or in manufactured formulations. A broad range of materials supports device construction, notably graphene, carbon nanotubes, fullerene, glassy carbon, and various metals. Sensor performance can be substantially improved through electrode modification using conductive materials, such as molecularly imprinted polymers, multiwalled carbon nanotubes, fullerene, and metal-based nanoparticles. This review details manufacturing approaches, electrode designs, and detection limits across carbon paste, glassy carbon, screen-printed, and reduced graphene oxide configurations for drug and metabolite detection.
Accurate and rapid monitoring of drugs and metabolites is essential for understanding how medications behave in the human body and ensuring pharmaceutical quality. Electrochemical sensors present an accessible, compact, and affordable alternative to complex testing platforms, allowing for faster evaluation of biological and pharmaceutical samples using diverse carbon and nanomaterial designs.
The reviewed sensor technologies target analytical applications in pharmaceutical quality control and clinical or biological testing. Because screen-printed electrodes and nanomaterial-modified designs enable low-cost, compact, and rapid multi-analyte detection, they are relevant to diagnostic developers and pharmaceutical manufacturers. However, as this work is an analytical review of reported manufacturing strategies and detection limits, the underlying technologies range from early laboratory research to established electrode formats requiring further industrial standardisation.
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Various applications of electrochemical sensors and biosensors have been reported in many fields. These include pharmaceuticals, drug detection, cancer detection, and analysis of toxic elements in tap water. Electrochemical sensors are characterised by their low cost, ease of manufacture, rapid analysis, small size and ability to detect multiple elements simultaneously. They also allow the reaction mechanisms of analytes, such as drugs, to be taken into account, giving a first indication of their fate in the body or their pharmaceutical preparation. Several materials are used in the construction of sensors, such as graphene, fullerene, carbon nanotubes, carbon graphite, glassy carbon, carbon clay, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, and metals. This review covers the most recent progress in electrochemical sensors used to analyze drugs and metabolites in pharmaceutical and biological samples. We have highlighted carbon paste electrodes (CPE), glassy carbon electrodes (GCE), screen-printed carbon electrodes (SPCE) and reduced graphene oxide electrodes (rGOE). The sensitivity and analysis speed of electrochemical sensors can be improved by modifying them with conductive materials. Different materials used for modification have been reported and demonstrated, such as molecularly imprinted polymers, multiwalled carbon nanotubes, fullerene (C60), iron(III) nanoparticles (Fe3O4NP), and CuO micro-fragments (CuO MF). Manufacturing strategies and the detection limit of each sensor have been reported.
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DOI: 10.5599/admet.1709
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