Exploring gender differences in visio-spatial intelligence and gaze behaviour: A review of existing research

Abstract

Background: Previous research has explored gender differences in visuo-spatial intelligence and gaze behaviour; however, no comprehensive review has synthesised findings across parameters or examined their underlying causes. Aim: This review critically evaluates literature on gender differences in gaze behaviour and visuo-spatial intelligence. It integrates findings from visual software (cognitive and perceptual processes) and visual hardware (biological and physiological capacities), identifies methodological inconsistencies, and examines sociocultural moderators influencing performance. A dual-framework approach is proposed to explain the interaction between these domains. Method: Electronic searches were carried out across multiple databases, including Current Contents, ScienceDirect, EBM Reviews, CISTI Source (1990–February 2025), Google Scholar, SportDiscus (1990–February 2025), PubMed (1990–February 2025), the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, and various international e-catalogues. Results: Seventy-seven full-text articles were reviewed. Consistent gender differences were observed in both biological capacities and cognitive strategies, although methodological variations contributed to inconsistencies. Sociocultural factors such as play experience and training exposure were identified as influential moderators. Conclusion: Gender differences in visio-spatial skills reflect biological, cognitive and social influences. An interactionist framework is recommended for future research. Contribution: This review advances understanding by introducing the distinction between ‘visual hardware’ and ‘visual software’, critically evaluating eye-tracking research and proposing a more nuanced interactionist framework for future investigations.