article · Discover Applied Sciences
This research evaluates the energy, exergy, and emissions of a compression ignition engine running on biodiesel blends derived from Croton macrostachyus methyl ester. The biodiesel was produced through transesterification using a novel calcium aluminium oxide heterogeneous catalyst prepared by calcination. Fuel blends containing 10, 15, 20, and 25 per cent biodiesel, alongside pure diesel, were tested in a single-cylinder, four-stroke engine under full load at varied speeds. The 20 per cent blend delivered the most balanced performance, showing a 5.85 per cent decrease in brake thermal efficiency, a 3.86 per cent increase in brake specific fuel consumption, and a 15.4 per cent reduction in exergy destruction compared to pure diesel. While the 25 per cent blend lowered carbon dioxide emissions by 1.55 per cent, it raised nitrogen oxide emissions by 8.6 per cent.
Depleting fossil reserves and rising pollution demand renewable alternatives for transportation and industry. Evaluating thermodynamic losses and exergy destruction provides a complete picture of engine inefficiency that standard performance testing overlooks. Identifying viable plant-based biodiesel blends helps developers improve engine efficiency, reduce carbon dioxide emissions, and transition towards more sustainable energy sources.
This work demonstrates an applied, experimental-stage fuel alternative that could be relevant to biofuel producers and diesel engine operators. The findings indicate that a twenty per cent Croton macrostachyus blend can substitute conventional diesel in compression ignition engines at low to moderate speeds. However, the technology is confined to single-cylinder laboratory testing and requires operational optimisation at higher speeds before it can advance toward commercial engine trials.
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Growing energy demand associated with population increase and industrial expansion is contributing to the rapid depletion of fossil fuel reserves and the rise in emission related pollution. In response, attention has shifted toward sustainable energy sources, where biodiesel is recognized as a renewable, environmentally benign, and biodegradable alternative to traditional fuels. However, evaluating engine performance alone is insufficient, as it does not account for inefficiencies and irreversibility that contribute to energy losses in diesel engines. This study aims to evaluates the energy, exergy, and emission characteristics of a compression ignition (CI) engine fueled with Croton macrostachyus methyl ester (CMB) biodiesel blends. It also synthesis a CaO–Al 2 O 3 composite heterogeneous catalyst via calcination method and characterize the fuel properties. The biodiesel was produced through transesterification using a novel hybrid calcium–aluminum oxide (CaO–Al 2 O 3 ) heterogeneous catalyst. Five fuels pure diesel (B0) and blends CMB10, CMB15, CMB20, and CMB25 were tested on a single-cylinder, four-stroke diesel engine under full load conditions at varied speeds of 800, 1400, 2000, and 2600 rpm. Results showed that CMB20 achieved the best overall balance among the blends, with a 5.85% lower brake thermal efficiency (BTE) and 3.86% higher brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) than diesel. CMB25 reduced CO 2 emissions by 1.55%, though NOx emissions increased by 8.6%. At 2600 rpm, CMB20 slightly raised the exhaust gas temperature (EGT) by 6.14%, while CMB25 exhibited 18.02 and 13.1% higher exhaust energy and exergy losses, respectively. Cooling water energy and exergy losses rose by 19–31.6% and 6.67–23.8% at lower engine speeds. CMB20 demonstrated 15.4% lower exergy destruction, and the maximum exergy efficiency (20%) was observed for CMB15. Overall, Croton macrostachyus biodiesel blends exhibited higher exhaust energy losses but lower exhaust exergy losses than diesel. At low to moderate speeds, CMB20 delivered improved thermodynamic performance and reduced emissions, indicating its potential as an environmentally favorable diesel substitute requiring optimization at higher speeds.
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DOI: 10.1007/s42452-026-09394-3
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