review · Heliyon
Reviewing 23 studies over the past decade, electrochemical sensors modified with iron oxide nanoparticles and their nanocomposites demonstrate high sensitivity for detecting lead ions in drinking water. Stricter standards reducing permissible lead limits from 10 to 5 micrograms per litre demand rapid, reliable sensing methods. Modifying working electrodes with iron oxide nanomaterials enhances sensor selectivity and sensitivity, achieving detection limits from 2.5 x 10^-9 to 4.5 micrograms per litre, well below regulatory thresholds. Most examined studies used square wave anodic stripping voltammetry in an acetate buffer solution, operating under acidic pH conditions between 3 and 5.6. However, current preparation relies heavily on commercial iron salts and varied modifying agents, which can introduce reproducibility and cost issues. Alternative sources such as industrial iron waste and biomass-derived activated carbons offer sustainable avenues that require further exploration.
Lead contamination in drinking water poses serious health risks, leading to tighter regulatory limits. Electrochemical sensors provide a fast, cost-effective method for detecting trace metals. Identifying how iron oxide nanomaterials enhance sensor sensitivity helps in developing reliable, low-cost monitoring systems capable of verifying that drinking water meets modern safety guidelines.
The technology targets drinking water safety testing and heavy metal environmental monitoring. While working electrodes modified with iron oxide nanoparticles demonstrate detection limits well below regulatory thresholds, current methods rely on commercial salts and complex preparation that hamper reproducibility. The research represents early-stage development, with potential routes toward scalable and sustainable manufacturing using industrial waste and biomass still requiring practical validation.
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Permissible limits of Pb<sup>2+</sup> in drinking water are being reduced from 10 μgL<sup>-1</sup> to 5 μgL<sup>-1</sup>, which calls for rapid, and highly reliable detection techniques. Electrochemical sensors have garnered attention in detection of heavy metal ions in environmental samples due to their ease of operation, low cost, and rapid detection responses. Selectivity, sensitivity and detection capabilities of these sensors, can be enhanced by modifying their working electrodes (WEs) with iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) and/or their composites. Therefore, this review is an in-depth analysis of the deployment of IONPs/nanocomposites in modification of electrochemical sensors for detection of Pb<sup>2+</sup> in drinking water over the past decade. From the analyzed studies (n = 23), the optimal solution pH, deposition potential, and deposition time ranged between 3 and 5.6, -0.7 to -1.4 V vs Ag/AgCl, and 100-400 s, respectively. Majority of the studies employed square wave anodic stripping voltammetry (n = 16), in 0.1 M acetate buffer solution (n = 19) for detection of Pb<sup>2+</sup>. Limits of detection obtained (2.5 x 10<sup>-9</sup> - 4.5 μg/L) were below the permissible levels which indicated good sensitivities of the modified electrodes. Despite the great performance of these modified electrodes, the primary source of IONPs has always been commercial iron-based salts in addition to the use of so many materials as modifying agents of these IONPs. This may limit reproducibility and sustainability of the WEs due to lengthy and costly preparation protocols. Steel and/or iron industrial wastes can be alternatively employed in generation of IONPs for modification of electrochemical sensors. Additionally, biomass-based activated carbons enriched with surface functional groups are also used in modification of bare IONPs, and subsequently bare electrodes. However, these two areas still need to be fully explored.
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DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29743
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