Editorial: Climate change, human-wildlife interactions and sustainable tourism nexus in protected areas

Abstract

Editorial on the research topic: Climate Change, Human-Wildlife Interactions and SustainableThe UN Convention on Biological Diversity's post-2020 global biodiversity framework (UNGBF) recognizes climate change and human-wildlife interactions as issues of global concern (IUCN, 2024). The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2018) defines climate change as 'a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods'. Climate change is one the drivers for complex human wildlife interactions (HWIs) across the globe. Nyhus (2016) defines human wildlife interactions (HWIs) as the association or activities/actions of humans and wildlife towards each other in areas where they geospatially overlap. Habitat overlap results in competition for natural resources between human and wildlife, with consequences on human food security and socio-ecological well-being. Thus, HWIs can occur in various ways and differs varies in terms of rate of occurrence thereby impacting both humans and wildlife by imposing adverse effects that may result in at least three outcomes, that is, conflict, and/or neutral or even uplifting/positive effects that underlie their mutual coexistence (Woodroffe et al., 2005;König et al., 2020). Interactions between humans and wildlife occur across a variety of landscapes ranging from urban areas (Schell et al., 2021), rural areas, periurban (Soga & Gaston, 2020), resettlement areas (Chakuya et al., 2024) and the buffer zones adjacent close in proximity to protected areas. HWIs can result in human-wildlife conflicts (HWCs).The IUCN (2022) defines human wildlife conflict as " struggles that emerge when the presence or behavior of wildlife poses actual or perceived, direct and recurring threat to human interests or needs, leading to disagreements between groups of people and negative impacts on people and wildlife".Human responses to the impacts of climate change such as habitat restoration and water provision in the conservation and tourism sector (Dube et al., 2022) create conditions which allow wildlife to thrive. However, climate change poses a challenge to society by influencing tourism sector investment, planning, operations, and demand (Scott, 2021). In addition, climate change induced extreme events such as drought, tropical cyclones, floods and heat waves/stress can result in direct and indirect impacts on natural systems resulting in disruption of ecosystem services. Drought, in particular compromises the availability of provisioning ecosystem services such as water and food leading to habitat overlap between humans and wildlife. For example, Dube et al. ( 2022) mentioned that drought phenomenon has been increasing in both frequency and intensity globally with impacts on tourist destinations in sub-Saharan Africa and beyond. Southern Africa communities in particular suffer from the intertwined issues of poverty (most live below the poverty line), the increasing impacts of climate change (prolonged and frequent droughts), natural habitat conversion and land degradation. The resilience of ecosystems is negatively impacted as are the livelihoods and food security of rural communities. Eighty percent of the people are heavily dependent upon natural resources and live largely from subsistence agriculture (shifting cultivation). This calls for the need to promote sustainable tourism practices to ensure resilience building for all.Climate change effects impact on HWCs and strategies to manage such conflicts must consider the unique multifaceted nature of human wildlife conflicts which incorporate ecological, cultural, social, historical, physical, economic and political characteristics. It is important to note that humans have interacted with wildlife since time immemorial. However, literature has tended to focus more on the negative side of interaction (human wildlife conflict), yet not all interactions are negative (Bhatia et al., 2019). Abrahms et al. ( 2023) noted that climate change and human-wildlife conflict are both pressing challenges for biodiversity conservation and human well-being in the Anthropocene. Climate change is a critical yet underappreciated amplifier of HWC as it exacerbates resource scarcity, alters human and animal behaviours and distributions, and increases humanwildlife encounters (Abrahms et al., 2023). Climate variability and change percolate via complex social-ecological systems to influence patterns and outcomes of human-wildlife interactions. In addition, human-wildlife interactions are often driven by underlying factors including knowledge, attitudes and perceptions towards costs and benefits accrued from wildlife and community-based conservation initiatives. Thus, HWIs impose costs-to-benefits tradeoffs to humans and wildlife, and thereby impact both in complex, sometimes paradoxical ways.Over the years, sustainable tourism has been advanced as the vehicle for advancing the sustainable development agenda and as a mitigatory tool to HWC from the tourism perspective. The United Nations Environment Program and UN World Tourism Organization (2015) defines sustainable tourism as "tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities". To a greater extent, it is religiously regarded as the most ideal form of tourism that creates sustained benefits for the triple P (People, Planet, Profit), and if properly practiced, it contributes to the attainment of multiple sustainable development goals (SDGs). However, the negative effects of climate change are seemingly undermining the very essence of sustainable tourism (Chiwaridzo & Dzingirai, 2024) The second article by Miller et al. presents a brief research report on "Ecotourism, wildlife conservation, and agriculture in Costa Rica through a social-ecological systems lens". Parks and protected areas have long been promoted for their environmental conservation benefits, opportunities for outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism, and associated economic opportunities. The paper adopts the socio-ecological systems (SES) framework to assess missions, goals and management practices from diverse stakeholders engaged in ecotourism using a case study of a regional tourism hub in northwestern Costs Rica. The study revealed both positive to negative, forming a four-quadrant framework. The authors argue that this framework is more representative of this highly complex system of ecotourism than traditional human-impact research and provides a more holistic understanding of the nature-based recreation ecosystem.