Comparative sustainability assessment of oil extraction techniques for <i>Rosa damascena</i> using analytical greenness metrics

Abstract

Rosa damascena Mill. (Damask rose) is among the most commercially significant aromatic plants worldwide and is extensively cultivated in Taif, Saudi Arabia. Conventional extraction techniques such as hydrodistillation (HD) are energy- and time-intensive, and no comprehensive sustainability framework has been applied to systematically compare available extraction methods. This study presents an integrated multi-metric sustainability assessment of nine R. damascena oil extraction techniques, including conventional and emerging approaches. Five complementary green analytical metrics (AGREE, ESA, NEMI, BAGI, and SPMS) were applied alongside a newly developed Method Efficiency Power Assessment (MEPA), which integrates extraction time, energy consumption, and yield to benchmark overall process performance. Microwave-assisted distillation demonstrated the highest sustainability performance (ESA = 97; AGREE = 0.67; BAGI = 80; SPMS = 8.21) with a yield of 0.073% in 15 min. Microwave– ultrasound-assisted extraction achieved the highest yield (0.12% in 27 min) with strong greenness metrics but required higher energy input. Conventional hydrodistillation showed comparatively lower efficiency due to longer processing time and greater energy demand. Microwave-assisted distillation is recommended for industrial-scale R. damascena oil production in Taif, achieving substantial reductions in extraction time (93%) and energy demand relative to HD. The proposed MEPA–greenness framework provides a robust tool for sustainable process selection and supports alignment with UN Sustainable Development Goals, Saudi Vision 2030 and global trend of energy-saving aspects.