article · Toxins
An assessment of seventy-eight fish feeds and feed ingredients collected from fish farms and manufacturing plants in Kenya examined forty mycotoxins using high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Twenty-nine distinct mycotoxins were identified, with ninety-seven percent of the samples testing positive for contamination. Enniatin B, deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1 showed the highest prevalence rates, appearing in ninety-one, seventy-six and fifty-four percent of samples respectively. The highest maximum concentrations were recorded for sterigmatocystin, moniliformin and ergotamine. Multiple mycotoxins co-occurred in eighty-seven percent of the samples, alongside correlations between fumonisins, enniatins B and zearalenone and its metabolites. Dietary exposure estimates for fish ranged between less than 0.16 and 43.38 micrograms per kilogram of body weight daily. These findings show widespread exposure, highlighting risks of additive or synergistic toxicity and potential residue transfer to consumers.
High contamination rates and toxin co-occurrence in aquafeeds threaten fish health and farming productivity. Chronic intake may cause combined toxic effects in fish stocks, while residual toxins risk entering the human food supply chain through harvested fish. Understanding the specific toxins present allows feed millers and farmers to implement targeted interventions that protect both aquaculture yields and consumer health.
This research provides baseline contamination data that feed manufacturers, testing laboratories and aquaculture operators can use to design targeted testing and mitigation programmes. The work itself represents early-stage diagnostic monitoring rather than an applied tool, but it identifies specific high-prevalence toxins that commercial screening services and toxin-binder developers should prioritise.
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This study determined the presence, levels and co-occurrence of mycotoxins in fish feeds in Kenya. Seventy-eight fish feeds and ingredients were sampled from fish farms and fish feed manufacturing plants and analysed for 40 mycotoxins using high-performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. Twenty-nine (73%) mycotoxins were identified with 76 (97%) samples testing positive for mycotoxins presence. Mycotoxins with the highest prevalences were enniatin B (91%), deoxynivalenol (76%) and fumonisin B1 (54%) while those with the highest maximum levels were sterigmatocystin (<30.5-3517.1 µg/kg); moniliformin (<218.9-2583.4 µg/kg) and ergotamine (<29.3-1895.6 µg/kg). Mycotoxin co-occurrence was observed in 68 (87%) samples. Correlations were observed between the fumonisins; enniatins B and zearalenone and its metabolites. Fish dietary exposure estimates ranged between <0.16 and 43.38 µg/kg body weight per day. This study shows evidence of mycotoxin presence and co-occurrence in fish feeds and feed ingredients in Kenya. Fish exposure to these levels of mycotoxins over a long period of time may lead to adverse health effects due to their possible additive, synergistic or antagonist toxic effects. Measures to reduce fish feed mycotoxin contamination should be taken to avoid mycotoxicosis in fish and subsequently in humans and animals through residues.
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DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100627
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