Calcium Intake and Food Sources Among Children, Adolescents and Women in Madagascar: Results from a Nationally Representative Survey

Abstract

<b>Background</b>: Many countries in sub-Saharan Africa are at risk of inadequate calcium intake, yet no data exist for vulnerable population groups in Madagascar. We aimed to assess daily calcium intake, the major contributing food sources, and the prevalence of inadequate intake in young children, adolescents, and women of reproductive age. <b>Methods</b>: The 2024 National Micronutrient Survey used a two-stage probabilistic design across all 23 regions. The daily calcium intake was estimated using a food frequency questionnaire that focused on calcium-rich foods that are commonly consumed in Madagascar and the calcium concentration measured in drinking water. <b>Results</b>: Calcium intake was low across all population groups, averaging 200-300 mg/d in adolescents and women and below 180 mg/d in young children. The prevalence of inadequate intake exceeded 96% in every population group. While calcium intake increased with increasing household wealth in children, the opposite pattern was observed for adolescents and women, whose intake decreased with increasing wealth. The main contributors to calcium intake were cassava leaves, cassava roots, small fresh and dried fish eaten with bones, drinking water across all population groups, and breastmilk in young children. <b>Conclusions</b>: The calcium intake is low throughout Madagascar and across all demographic groups. Strategies to improve intake are urgently needed and should include promoting continued breastfeeding and the consumption of calcium-rich, locally available, affordable foods such as small fish eaten with bones and leafy green vegetables, alongside a consideration of wheat flour fortified with calcium.