article · Molecules
An environmentally friendly method was used to formulate clove oil into a nanoemulsion with spherical droplets measuring approximately 32.67 nanometres, alongside a standard emulsion. Laboratory testing demonstrated that the nanoemulsion possessed superior antimicrobial capabilities compared to the standard formulation. It exhibited antibacterial action with minimum inhibitory concentrations between 0.31 and 5 milligrams per millilitre and significantly decreased Staphylococcus aureus biofilm formation. The formulation also showed strong antifungal effects against several fungal strains, including Candida albicans and Aspergillus species. When tested on cancer cell lines, the nanoemulsion displayed cytotoxicity toward HepG2 liver and MCF-7 breast cancer cells. In breast cancer cells, it reduced the half-maximal inhibitory concentration 3.4-fold compared to the standard emulsion, inducing programmed cell death through caspase-8 and caspase-9 activation and vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 suppression.
Bacterial biofilms, drug-resistant fungi, and cancer represent persistent challenges in healthcare. Formulating plant-derived essential oils into nanoscale droplets enhances their biological activity compared to traditional emulsions. Demonstrating that clove oil nanoemulsions can suppress microbial growth, break down biofilms, and promote apoptosis in cancer cells highlights the therapeutic potential of plant-based nanomaterials in future medical treatments.
This work points toward potential biomedical applications, specifically in antimicrobial therapy, biofilm control, and oncology. Potential users could include pharmaceutical developers and biomedical researchers exploring natural active ingredients. The technology is at an early research stage, having been evaluated only in laboratory cell lines and microbial cultures, with extensive in vivo testing required before clinical or commercial development can proceed.
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In the current study, clove oil nanoemulsion (CL-nanoemulsion) and emulsion (CL-emulsion) were prepared through an ecofriendly method. The prepared CL-nanoemulsion and CL-emulsion were characterized using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and a transmission electron microscope (TEM), where results illustrated that CL-nanoemulsion droplets were approximately 32.67 nm in size and spherical in shape, while CL-nanoemulsion droplets were approximately 225.8 nm with a spherical shape. The antibacterial activity of CL-nanoemulsion and CL-emulsion was carried out using a microbroth dilution method. Results revealed that the preferred CL-nanoemulsion had minimal MIC values between 0.31 and 5 mg/mL. The antibiofilm efficacy of CL-nanoemulsion against S. aureus significantly decreased the development of biofilm compared with CL-emulsion. Furthermore, results illustrated that CL-nanoemulsion showed antifungal activity significantly higher than CL-emulsion. Moreover, the prepared CL-nanoemulsion exhibited outstanding antifungal efficiency toward Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans, Aspergillus brasiliensis, A. flavus, and A. fumigatus where MICs were 12.5, 3.12, 0.78, 1.56, and 1.56 mg/mL, respectively. Additionally, the prepared CL-nanoemulsion was analyzed for its antineoplastic effects through a modified MTT assay for evaluating apoptotic and cytotoxic effects using HepG2 and MCF-7 cell lines. MCF-7 breast cancer cells showed the lowest IC50 values (3.4-fold) in CL-nanoemulsion relative to that of CL-emulsion. Thus, CL-nanoemulsion induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells by inducing caspase-8 and -9 activity and suppressing VEGFR-2. In conclusion, the prepared CL-nanoemulsion had antibacterial, antifungal, and antibiofilm as well as anticancer properties, which can be used in different biomedical applications after extensive studies in vivo.
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DOI: 10.3390/molecules28155812
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